Vol-3197/paper11
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| Paper | |
|---|---|
 edit
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| description | scientific paper published in CEUR-WS Volume 3197 |
| id | Vol-3197/paper11 |
| wikidataid | Q117341837→Q117341837 |
| title | There and Back Again: Combining Non-monotonic Logical Reasoning and Deep Learning on an Assistive Robot |
| pdfUrl | https://ceur-ws.org/Vol-3197/paper11.pdf |
| dblpUrl | https://dblp.org/rec/conf/nmr/SridharanBFG22 |
| volume | Vol-3197→Vol-3197 |
| session | → |
There and Back Again: Combining Non-monotonic Logical Reasoning and Deep Learning on an Assistive Robot
There and Back Again: Combining Non-monotonic
Logical Reasoning and Deep Learning on an Assistive
Robot
Mohan Sridharan1,* , Chloé Benz2 , Arthur Findelair3 and Kévin Gloaguen4
1
Intelligent Robotics Lab, School of Computer Science, University of Birmingham, UK
2
Illinois Institute of Technology, USA
3
Illinois Institute of Technology, USA
4
École Nationale Supérieure de Mécanique et d’Aérotechnique, France
Abstract
This paper describes the development of an architecture that combines non-monotonic logical reasoning and deep learning
in virtual (simulated) and real (physical) environments for an assistive robot. As an illustrative example, we consider a robot
assisting in a simulated restaurant environment. For any given goal, the architecture uses Answer Set Prolog to represent and
reason with incomplete commonsense domain knowledge, providing a sequence of actions for the robot to execute. At the
same time, reasoning directs the robot’s learning of deep neural network models for human face and hand gestures made in
the real world. These learned models are used to recognize and translate human gestures to scenarios that mimic real-world
situations in the simulated environment, and to goals that need to be achieved by the robot in the simulated environment. We
report the challenges faced in the development of such an integrated architecture, as well as the insights learned from the design,
implementation, and evaluation of this architecture by a distributed team of researchers during the ongoing pandemic.
Keywords
Non-monotonic logical reasoning, Probabilistic reasoning, Interactive learning, Robotics
1. Motivation
Consider the motivating example of a mobile robot (Pep-
per) waiter in a simulated restaurant, as shown in Figure 1.
The robot has to perform tasks such as seating customers
at suitable tables, taking and delivering food orders, and
collecting payment. To perform these tasks, the robot
extracts and reasons with the information from different
sensors (e.g., camera, range finder) and incomplete com-
monsense domain knowledge. This knowledge includes
relational descriptions of the domain objects and their at-
Figure 1: Illustrative snapshot of an assistive robot oper-
tributes (e.g., size, number, and relative positions of tables,
ating as a waiter in a simulated restaurant scenario.
chairs, and people). It also includes axioms governing
actions and change in the domain (e.g., the preconditions
and effects of seating a group of people at a particular
table), including default statements that hold in all but with its knowledge and sensor observations to revise its
a few exceptional circumstances (e.g., “customers typ- knowledge (e.g., revise the number of people seated at
ically need some time to look at the menu before they different tables, learn the effects of different gestures).
place an order”). Since the domain description is incom- Furthermore, to promote better interaction with humans
plete and can change over time, the robot also reasons in the restaurant, the robot provides on-demand relational
descriptions of its decisions and the evolution of beliefs.
NMR 2022: 20th InternationalWorkshop on Non-Monotonic Reason- Realizing the motivating scenario described above
ing, August 07–09, 2022, Haifa, Israel poses fundamental challenges in knowledge represen-
*
Corresponding author. tation, reasoning, and learning. State of the art robot
" m.sridharan@bham.ac.uk (M. Sridharan);
architectures often seek to address these challenges by
chloe.c.benz@gmail.com (C. Benz); arthfind@gmail.com
(A. Findelair); k.gloaguen1303@gmail.com (K. Gloaguen) using logics and probabilistic methods to represent and
~ https://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~sridharm/ (M. Sridharan) reason with domain knowledge and observations, and
� 0000-0001-9922-8969 (M. Sridharan) by using data-driven (deep) learning methods to extract
© 2022 Copyright for this paper by its authors. Use permitted under Creative Commons License
Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0). knowledge from large, labeled datasets (e.g., of noisy sen-
CEUR
Workshop
Proceedings
http://ceur-ws.org
ISSN 1613-0073
CEUR Workshop Proceedings (CEUR-WS.org)
115
�sor observations). However, practical domains make it 2. Related Work
difficult to provide a comprehensive encoding of domain
knowledge, or the computational resources and examples There is a well-established history of the use of log-
needed to augment or revise the robot’s knowledge. Fur- ics in different AI and robotics applications. The non-
thermore, circumstances such as the ongoing pandemic monotonic logical reasoning paradigm used in this paper,
make it rather challenging for a distributed team of re- ASP, has been used by an international community of re-
searchers to design and evaluate such architectures for searchers for many applications in robotics [1] and other
integrated robot systems. fields [2]. There has also been a lot of work over multiple
This paper makes a two-fold contribution towards ad- decades on integrating logical and probabilistic reason-
dressing the above-mentioned challenges. First, it uses ing [3, 4, 5], and on using different logics for guiding
the motivating example to describe the development probabilistic sequential decision making [6]. Our focus
of an architecture that adapts knowledge representation here is on building on this work to support transparent
(KR) tools to achieve transparent, reliable, and efficient knowledge-based reasoning and data-driven learning in
knowledge-based reasoning and data-driven learning on integrated robot systems.
an assistive robot. Second, it highlights the advantages of There are many methods for learning logic-based rep-
using KR tools, and of formally coupling representation, resentations of domain knowledge. This includes the
reasoning and learning, to design such an architecture. incremental revision of action operators in first-order
More specifically, our architecture: logic [7], the inductive learning of domain knowledge
encoded as an Answer Set Prolog program [8], and the
• Represents and performs non-monotonic logical work on coupling non-monotonic logical reasoning with
reasoning with incomplete commonsense domain inductive learning or relational reinforcement learning to
knowledge using Answer Set Prolog (ASP) to ob- learn axioms [9, 10]. Our approach in this architecture is
tain a plan of abstract actions for any given goal; inspired by work in interactive task learning [11]; unlike
• Executes each abstract action as a sequence of methods that learn from many training examples, our ap-
concrete actions by automatically identifying and proach seeks to identify and learn from a limited number
reasoning probabilistically about the relevant do- of relevant training examples.
main knowledge at a finer granularity; Given the use of deep networks in different applications,
• Reasons with domain knowledge to allow humans there is much interest in understanding their operation in
making hand gestures in the physical world to terms of the features influencing network outputs [12, 13].
interact with the simulated robot in a manner that There is also work on neuro-symbolic systems that reason
mimics interaction in the physical world; and with learned symbolic structure or a scene graph in con-
• Reasons with domain knowledge to guide the junction with deep networks to answer questions about
learning of models for new hand gestures and images [14, 15]. Work in the broader areas of explainable
the corresponding axioms, and for providing on- AI and explainable planning can be categorized into two
demand relational descriptions as explanations of groups. Methods in one group modify or map learned
the robot’s decisions and beliefs. models or reasoning systems to make their decisions more
interpretable [16] or easier for humans to understand [17].
The interactive interface between the virtual and physical Methods in the other group provide descriptions that make
world helped the three undergraduate student authors de- a reasoning system’s decisions more transparent [18], help
sign, implement, and evaluate the architecture remotely humans understand plans [19], and help justify solutions
over different time intervals during the pandemic. It also obtained by non-monotonic logical reasoning [20]. Re-
helped us explore the interplay between reasoning and cent survey papers indicate that existing methods: (i) do
learning. The “there and back again” in the title thus refers not fully integrate reasoning and learning to inform and
to the architecture’s on-demand ability to traverse differ- guide each other; (ii) do not fully exploit the available
ent points in space and time, and to transition between commonsense domain knowledge for reliable, efficient,
the physical and virtual world for human-robot collabora- and transparent reasoning and learning; and (iii) are often
tion. We demonstrate the capabilities of our architecture agnostic to how an explanation is structured or assumes
through experimental results and execution traces of use comprehensive domain knowledge [21, 22]
cases in our motivating restaurant domain. Our work focuses on transparent, reliable, and efficient
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. We reasoning and learning in integrated robot systems that
begin by discussing related work in Section 2. Next, we combine reasoning with incomplete commonsense do-
describe our architecture and its components in Section 3. main knowledge and data-driven learning from limited
The execution traces and results of evaluating our archi- examples. We seek to demonstrate that this objective can
tecture’s components are described in Section 4, and the be achieved by building on KR tools. To do so, we build
conclusions are described in Section 5. on some of the prior work of the lead author with others.
116
� Knowledge Representation+ Reasoning
providing a bill and collecting payment; and (iv) respond-
domain knowledge (relations, action theory) ing to requests from the customer(s) and the designer. The
non−monotonic logical reasoning
probabilistic reasoning
robot uses probabilistic algorithms to model and account
for the uncertainty experienced during perception and ac-
tuation. Interactions of the robot with a human supervisor
are handled through the interface that interprets hand ges-
tures made by a human in the physical world. The robot
virtual world deep/reinforcement
has incomplete (and potentially imprecise) domain knowl-
inductive edge, which includes number, size, and location of tables
physical world and chairs; spatial relations between objects; and some
Interactive Learning axioms governing domain dynamics such as:
Interaction Interface
Figure 2: Overview of our architecture combining non- • If the robot allocates a group of customers to a
monotonic logical reasoning, probabilistic reasoning, and table, all members of the group are considered to
deep learning for reliable, efficient, and transparent rea- be seated at that table.
soning and learning.
• The robot cannot seat customers at a table that is
not empty, i.e., is occupied.
• Any customer cannot be allocated to more than
In particular, we build on work on: (i) a refinement-based one table at a time.
architecture for representation and reasoning [23]; (ii)
explainable agency and theory of explanations [24, 25]; This knowledge, e.g., the axioms describing dynamic
and (iii) combining non-monotonic logical reasoning and changes and the values of some attributes of the domain
deep learning for axiom learning and scene understand- or robot, may need to be revised over time.
ing [9, 26]. The novelty is in bringing these different
strands together in an architecture, and in facilitating
3.1. Representation and Reasoning
the interactive interface between the virtual and physi-
cal worlds for design and evaluation. To represent and reason with domain knowledge, we use
CR-Prolog, an extension of Answer Set Prolog (ASP) that
introduces consistency restoring (CR) rules [27]. ASP
3. Architecture Description is based on stable model semantics, and supports default
negation and epistemic disjunction, e.g., unlike “¬𝑎” that
Figure 2 presents an overview of the main components implies a is believed to be false, “𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎” only implies
of our architecture. As stated earlier, the architecture a is not believed to be true, and unlike “𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝” in
uses ASP to represent and reason with commonsense do- propositional logic, “𝑝 𝑜𝑟 ¬𝑝” is not tautologous. ASP
main knowledge, e.g., to reason about object and robot can represent recursive definitions and constructs that are
attributes to compute a plan to achieve a given goal. For difficult to express in classical logic formalisms, and it
more complex domains, this reasoning can take place us- supports non-monotonic logical reasoning, i.e., the abil-
ing transition diagrams at two different resolutions, with ity to revise previously held conclusions based on new
the fine-resolution diagram defined as a refinement of evidence. We use the terms “CR-Prolog” and “ASP” in-
the coarse-resolution diagram. Execution of the actions terchangeably in this paper.
by a robot can then involve probabilistic reasoning with
a relevant part of the fine-resolution transition diagram.
Reasoning informs and guides both the interactive learn- Knowledge representation. A domain’s description
ing of previously unknown domain knowledge (which in ASP comprises a system description 𝒟 and a history ℋ.
is used for subsequent reasoning), and the interface for 𝒟 comprises a sorted signature Σ and axioms encoding
interaction between a human in the physical world and the domain’s dynamics. Σ comprises basic sorts, statics,
the robot in the virtual world. Reasoning is also used i.e., domain attributes that do not change over time, fluents,
to identify relevant literals and axioms to provide an on- i.e., domain attributes whose values can be changed, and
demand description of the robot’s decisions and beliefs. actions; note that statics, fluents, and actions are described
The individual components are described below using the in terms of the sorts of their arguments. In the RW domain,
following example domain. the robot needs to reason about spatial relations between
objects, and to plan and execute actions that change the
Example Domain 1. [Robot Waiter (RW) Domain] domain. Such a dynamic domain is modeled in our archi-
A Pepper robot operates as a waiter in a restaurant. Its tecture by first describing Σ and the domain’s transition
tasks include: (i) greeting and seating customers; (ii) tak- diagram in action language 𝒜ℒ𝑑 [28]; this description is
ing food orders and delivering food to specific tables; (iii) then translated to ASP statements. The basic sorts of the
117
� ¬𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠(𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒(𝑅, 𝑁 ), 𝐼) ← (1e)
ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠(𝑙𝑜𝑐(𝑅, 𝑀 ), 𝐼), ¬𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒(𝑀, 𝑁 )
¬𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠(𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙(𝑅, 𝑇 ), 𝐼) ← (1f)
¬ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠(𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙(𝑇 ), 𝐼)
which encode two causal laws, two state constraints, and
two executability conditions respectively. For example,
Statement 1(a) is a causal law that implies that execut-
ing the move action causes the robot’s location to be the
desired node in the next time step, Statement 1(c) is a
constraint stating that a customer can only be at one table
at a time, and Statement 1(e) is an executability condition
Figure 3: Example layout of the RW domain, which orga- that implies that a move to a target location is not possible
nizes the available space into nodes representing regions if it is not connected to the robot’s current location. The
with specific tables. axioms also encode some default statements that hold in
all but a few exceptional situations. For example, in the
RW domain, we may want to encode that “clean plates
RW domain include 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒, 𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑜𝑡, 𝑐𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑟, 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑒, are usually in the kitchen” unless stated otherwise:
𝑤𝑎𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑓 𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒_𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑦, and
𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 for temporal reasoning. The sorts may be organized ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠(𝑙𝑜𝑐(𝑃, 𝑘𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑛), 𝐼) ← ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠(𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛(𝑃 ), 𝐼),
hierarchically, e.g., chair and table are subsorts of the 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒(𝑃 ), 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ¬ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠(𝑙𝑜𝑐(𝑃, 𝑘𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑛), 𝐼) (2)
sort furniture, and the sort employee includes robot and
supervisor as subsorts. where “not” denotes default negation. One potential ex-
Statics of the RW domain include relations edge(node, ception to this axiom is that some clean plates may also
node) and linked(node, furniture); the former is a graph- be placed near the buffet table; these exceptions can also
based encoding of regions, e.g., see Figure 3, and the latter be encoded. In addition to axioms, information extracted
associates particular tables to particular nodes. Fluents from the sensor inputs (e.g., different hand gestures) are
include relations such as location(robot, node), iswait- also converted to ASP statements at that time step. Each
ing(customer), attable(customer, table), occupancy(table, gesture is also associated with the corresponding axioms;
num), and haspaid(customer). Actions of the RW do- more specific details are provided in Section 3.3.
main include move(robot, node), which causes the robot A dynamic domain’s history ℋ typically comprises
to move to a particular node; seat(robot, customer, table), records of: (a) fluents observed to be true or false at
which causes the robot to seat particular customer(s) at a a particular time step; and (b) the actual execution of
particular table; and givebill(robot, table), which causes particular actions at particular time steps:
the robot to give the bill to a customer at a particular ta- 𝑜𝑏𝑠(𝑓 𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑏𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝)
ble. In addition, relation holds(fluent, step) implies that
a particular fluent holds true at a particular timestep, and ℎ𝑝𝑑(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝)
occurs(action, step) implies the occurrence of a particular Prior work demonstrated that this notion of history can
action at a particular timestep of the plan. be expanded to include defaults describing the values of
Given the signature Σ, axioms describing a domain’s fluents in the initial state, along with exceptions [23].
dynamics consist of causal laws, state constraints, and
executability conditions. For the RA domain, these are
Reasoning. Given the representation of domain knowl-
translated to statements in ASP such as:
edge described above, the robot still needs to reason with
ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠(𝑙𝑜𝑐(𝑅, 𝑁 ), 𝐼 + 1) ← (1a) this knowledge and observations perform tasks such as in-
ference, planning, and diagnostics. In our architecture, we
𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠(𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒(𝑅, 𝑁 ), 𝐼)
automatically construct the CR-Prolog program Π(𝒟, ℋ),
ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠(𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒(𝐶, 𝑇 ), 𝐼 + 1) ← (1b) which includes Σ and axioms of 𝒟, inertia axioms, reality
𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠(𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑡(𝑅, 𝐶, 𝑇 ), 𝐼) check axioms, closed world assumptions for actions, and
¬ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠(𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒(𝐶, 𝑇 2), 𝐼) ← (1c) observations, actions, and defaults from ℋ; a basic version
of this program can be viewed online [29]. For planning
ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠(𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒(𝐶, 𝑇 1), 𝐼), 𝑇 1 ̸= 𝑇 2 and diagnostics, this program also includes helper axioms
¬ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠(𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝑇, 𝑋2), 𝐼) ← (1d) that define a goal, and require the robot to search until a
ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠(𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝑇, 𝑋1), 𝐼), 𝑋1 ̸= 𝑋2 consistent model of the world is constructed and a plan
is computed to achieve the goal. Planning, diagnostics,
118
�and inference are then reduced to computing answer sets 𝑎𝑡𝑔 = 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑛2 ). The object constants relevant to
of Π; we use the SPARC system [30] to compute answer this transition then include 𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , and 𝑘𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑛.
set(s). Each answer set represents the robot’s beliefs in a
possible world; the literals of fluents and statics at a time Definition 2. [Relevant system description]
step represent the domain’s state at that time step. As The system description relevant to a transition 𝑇 =
stated earlier, our architecture’s non-monotonic reasoning ⟨𝜎1 , 𝑎𝑡𝑔 , 𝜎2 ⟩, i.e., 𝒟(𝑇 ), is defined by signature Σ(𝑇 )
ability supports recovery from incorrect inferences due to and axioms. Σ(𝑇 ) is constructed to comprise:
incomplete knowledge or noisy sensor inputs. • Basic sorts of Σ that produce a non-empty inter-
Prior work by the lead author and others resulted in an section with 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑛(𝑇 ).
architecture for reasoning with transition diagrams at two
• All object constants of basic sorts of Σ(𝑇 ) that
resolutions, with the fine-resolution diagram formally de-
form the range of a static attribute.
fined as a refinement of the coarse-resolution diagram [23].
• The object constants of basic sorts of Σ(𝑇 ) that
This definition differs from recent work on refinement and
form the range of a fluent, or the domain of a
abstraction of ASP programs and other logics [31, 32] in
fluent or a static, and are in 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑛(𝑇 ).
how the transition diagrams are coupled formally to satisfy
the requirements in the challenging context of integrated • Domain attributes restricted to Σ(𝑇 )’s basic sorts.
robot systems. This relation guarantees the existence of a Axioms of 𝒟(𝑇 ) are those of 𝒟 restricted to Σ(𝑇 ). It
path in the fine-resolution transition diagram implement- can be shown that for each transition in the transition dia-
ing each coarse-resolution transition. The robot can then gram of 𝒟, there is a transition in the transition diagram
use non-monotonic logical reasoning to compute a se- of 𝒟(𝑇 ). States of 𝒟(𝑇 ), i.e., literals comprising fluents
quence of abstract actions for any given goal, implement- and statics in the answer set of the ASP program, and
ing each abstract action as a sequence of fine-resolution ground actions of 𝒟(𝑇 ), are candidates for further explo-
actions by automatically zooming to and reasoning prob- ration. Continuing with the example in Definition 1, for
abilistically with the part of the fine-resolution diagram 𝑎𝑡𝑔 = 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑛2 ), 𝒟(𝑇 ) will not include axioms
relevant to the coarse-resolution transition. We build on corresponding to other actions, e.g., for seating customers
that notion of relevance to automatically: (a) constrain the at a table or giving the bill to a customer. If the robot has
robot’s attention to the nodes and regions relevant to any to perform fine-resolution probabilistic reasoning for ac-
given transition or plan that the robot has to execute—this tion execution, only the refinement of the relevant system
supports selective grounding; (b) limit recognition of hand description will be considered.
gestures to the subset relevant to the task at hand, e.g.,
gestures for placing an order once customers are seated, A robot waiter equipped with the representation and rea-
and limit learning to previously unknown hand gestures soning module described above, still needs to interact with
and related axioms—see Section 3.3; and (c) provide rela- humans. To support design and evaluation when in-person
tional descriptions of decisions by tracing the evolution of interaction with the robot is not possible, we incorporated
relevant beliefs and application of relevant axioms—see the interactive simulation module, as described below.
Section 3.3. For ease of understanding, we define the no-
tion of relevance for a given transition; similar definitions 3.2. Interactive Simulation and Hand
can be provided for a given goal or literal.
Gestures
Definition 1. [Relevant object constants] We developed a simulation environment and interface for
Let 𝑇 = ⟨𝜎1 , 𝑎𝑡𝑔 , 𝜎2 ⟩ be the transition of interest. Let the design and evaluation of our architecture. We used Py-
𝑟𝑒𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑛(𝑇 ) be the set of object constants of signature Σ Bullet [33], a Python-based module for simulating games
of 𝒟 identified using the following rules: and domains for machine learning and robotics. It enables
• Object constants from 𝑎𝑡𝑔 are in 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑛(𝑇 ); us to quickly load different articulated bodies and pro-
• If 𝑓 (𝑥1 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦) is a literal formed of a domain vides built-in support for forward and inverse kinematics,
attribute, and the literal belongs to 𝜎1 or 𝜎2 , but collision detection, and simulation of domain dynamics.
not both, then 𝑥1 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦 are in 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑛(𝑇 ); In our architecture, PyBullet is used to automatically
• If body 𝐵 of an axiom of 𝑎𝑡𝑔 contains generate a restaurant layout, e.g., see Figure 4, based on
𝑓 (𝑥1 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑌 ), a term whose domain is the domain information encoded in the ASP program, e.g.,
ground, and 𝑓 (𝑥1 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦) ∈ 𝜎1 , then Figure 3. Using the built-in blender of PyBullet, we are
𝑥1 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦 are in 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑛(𝑇 ). able to populate the simulated restaurant with a Pepper
robot, tables, chairs, and the desired number of customers.
Object constants from 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑛(𝑇 ) are said to be rele- We are also able to make on-demand revisions to the
vant to 𝑇 . For example, consider an initial state 𝜎1 domain, e.g., to match changes in the domain knowledge.
with 𝑙𝑜𝑐(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑛1 ) and 𝑙𝑜𝑐(𝑤𝑎𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑘𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑛), and action In addition, our simulator supports the movement of the
119
� are related to seating customers, handling food orders, or
executing terminal transactions (e.g., provide bill).
3.3. Interactive Learning and
Transparency
The architecture described so far reasons with incomplete
domain knowledge, which may lead the robot to make
incorrect decisions or cause the robot’s performance to
suffer, e.g., the robot may compute incorrect or unneces-
sarily long plans for any given goal. Also, the encoded
Figure 4: Simulated restaurant layout in PyBullet with knowledge and models may need to change over time. We
robot waiter and customers. address this requirement by introducing a module for in-
teractive learning and generation of relational descriptions
Table 1 Table 2 Table 3
as “explanations” of the robot’s decisions and beliefs.
Interactive learning. The interactive learning com-
Table 4 Table 5 Order fries ponent of our architecture has two parts. Given the use
of hand gestures for human-robot interaction, the first
part seeks to detect new gestures and learn models for
these gestures. A new hand gesture is detected when
Order steak Ask for the bill
the observed gesture differs significantly from any of the
Thumb
Index known gestures. A significant difference is experimen-
Middle
Ring
Little
tally determined as a difference in 15% of the keypoints
in a sequence of images. When a new gesture is recog-
nized, the robot automatically gathers a sequence of image
Figure 5: (Left) Subset of hand gestures providing direc-
tions to robot; (Right) The 21 keypoints used to model
frames, extracts features from these images, stores them
each hand gesture. in a separate file and quickly updates the hand gesture
recognition models to include this new gesture. A key
feature of our architecture is that reasoning and learning
inform and guide each other. For example, when the robot
robot in the restaurant based on the axioms encoded in the
has to recognize and respond to gestures, it automatically
ASP program. Furthermore, it is also possible to introduce
limits itself to gestures relevant to its current category of
new objects in the simulator (e.g., using hand gestures,
tasks, e.g., a robot delivering food cannot respond to direc-
see below) and automatically add this information to the
tion from a supervisor to seat new customers1 . Also, any
ASP program for further reasoning
newly learned gesture is placed in the appropriate cate-
Recall that communication of human instructions to the
gory of gestures (determined based on purpose of gesture)
robot waiter is based on hand gestures made in the physi-
for subsequent reasoning. This use of reasoning to direct
cal world. To support such interaction, we first enabled
learning speeds up recognition and learning.
our architecture to recognize a base set of hand gestures;
The second part of the learning component focuses
a subset of these gestures are shown in Figure 5(left).
on acquiring axioms corresponding to any new gesture,
To model and recognize hand gestures, we integrate the
and merging the axioms with the existing ones. This is
OpenPose system [34] that characterizes gestures using
achieved by taking the label provided by human for the
21 keypoints, as shown in Figure 5(right). After the inte-
new gesture and checking if the corresponding instruction
gration, the simulator allows us to capture images of the
(e.g., seat two people) can be executed with the existing
hand gestures made in the physical world to quickly train
knowledge. If that is possible, no further learning is per-
deep network models that can accurately recognize these
formed. If existing knowledge is insufficient to execute
gestures in new videos (i.e., image sequences). We used
the new instruction, or if the human provides feedback,
an existing Python library for training these deep network
e.g., a textual or verbal description that is processed using
models with experimentally determined loss functions—
existing tools, which includes an action, literals extracted
Figure 6. Note that the modularity of the architecture
from the feedback are used to construct an axiom that is
makes it easy to quickly explore the different deep net-
merged with existing ones. Once again, reasoning helps
work models without changing other parts of the architec-
ture. The known hand gestures with trained models are 1
Associating priority levels with tasks will enable the robot to inter-
then grouped in different categories based on whether they rupt its current task to execute a higher-priority task.
120
� 100
10 1
Loss
10 2
10 3
10 4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Epoch
improved ANN-3x16 (1691) ANN-2x128 (25499)
baseline ANN-3x64 (12827)
Figure 6: Learning curves for acquiring models for the hand gestures using different deep network structures; models
with low loss are obtained over a few epochs when guided by reasoning.
direct this learning by limiting scope to the relevant ob- Paths from the root to the leaves in these trees provide
ject constants and description. For example, assume that explanations. If multiple such paths exist, we currently
the robot is shown a new gesture for seating a group of select one of the shortest branches at random; other heuris-
customers at a table. The robot will use human feed- tics could be used to compare the explanations. For ex-
back about this new gesture, and only consider literals ample, if the robot is asked why it seated a group of three
corresponding to: the location of these customers, its own customers at 𝑇 𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒5 , it can trace the current belief about
location, and the occupancy of tables in the restaurant, to the group back to the initial state through the applica-
learn axioms for the new action. tion of relevant axioms, and come up with an explanation
such as: “The three customers came to the restaurant and
Tracing explanations. Our architecture supports the wanted to be seated as a group. 𝑇 𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒5 at node 𝑛7 was the
ability to infer the sequence of axioms and beliefs that table closest to the entrance that had the desired number
explains the evolution of any given belief or the non- of seats available. I seated the customers at 𝑇 𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒5 ”.
selection of any given ground action at a given time. We In addition to tracing the evolution of a target belief
build on the idea of proof trees, which have been used to and justifying the non-selection of a particular action, our
explain observations in classical first-order logic [35], and architecture can also provide: (a) a description of any
adapt it to our architecture that is based on descriptions computed or executed plan in terms of literals in the plan;
in non-monotonic logic. Our approach is based on the (b) justification for executing a particular action at a partic-
following sequence of steps: ular time step by examining the change in state caused by
the action’s execution and how this state change achieves
1. Select axioms that have the target belief or action the goal or facilitates the execution of the next action in
in the head. the plan; and (c) inferred outcome(s) of the execution of
2. Ground literals in each such axiom’s body and hypothetical actions based on a mental simulation guided
check whether these ground literals are supported by the current domain knowledge. In all these cases, the
(i.e., satisfied) by the current answer set. identified literals are encapsulated in a prespecified an-
3. Create a new branch in the proof tree (that has the swer template to provide the descriptions. For proof of
target belief or action as root) for each selected concept examples in simplistic scene understanding sce-
axiom supported by the current answer set, and narios, please see [9]; some specific examples in the RW
store the axiom and the related supporting ground domain are provided below (Section 4.1).
literals in suitable nodes.
4. Repeats Steps 1-3 with the supporting ground lit- Control loop. Algorithm 1 is the overall control loop
erals in Step 3 as target beliefs in Step 1, until all for the architecture. The baseline behavior (lines 3-8) is
branches reach a leaf node without further sup- to plan and execute actions to achieve the given goal as
porting axioms. long as a consistent model of history can be computed.
If such a model cannot be constructed, it is attributed to
121
� Algorithm 1: Our architecture’s control loop. 4. Execution Traces and Results
Input: Π(𝒟, ℋ); goal description; initial state 𝜎1 .
Meaningfully evaluating architectures for integrated robot
Output: Control signals for robot to execute.
systems is challenging. It is difficult to find a baseline
1 planMode = true, learnExplainMode = false
that provides all the capabilities supported by our archi-
2 while true do
tecture, and it is also difficult to evaluate the capabilities
3 Add observations to history.
of each component of the architecture in isolation. Also,
4 ComputeAnswerSets(Π(𝒟, ℋ))
given that reasoning and learning guide each other in our
5 if planMode then
architecture to automatically identify and focus only on
6 if existsGoal then
the relevant information, task complexity and scalability
7 if explainedObs then
do not necessarily change substantially by increasing the
8 ExecutePlanStep()
number of tasks, and just reporting success in many sce-
9 else
narios is not very informative. In addition, it was difficult
10 planMode = false
to use a physical robot to conduct the experimental trials
11 learnExplainMode = true
during the pandemic. We thus focus on illustrating the
12 end
capabilities of our architecture using a combination of
13 else execution traces (i.e., use cases) and some experiments
14 learnExplainMode = true that provide quantitative results. The key hypotheses to
15 end be evaluated are:
16 else
H1 : our architecture enables the robot to compute
17 if interrupt then
and execute plans to achieve desired goals;
18 planMode = true
19 else if learnExplainMode then H2 : having reasoning inform and guide learning im-
20 AcquireKnowledgeExplain() proves computational efficiency of learning and
recognition accuracy of the learned models; and
21 end
H3 : exploiting the links between reasoning and learn-
22 end
ing provides suitable relational descriptions as ex-
planations of decisions and beliefs.
We explore hypotheses H1 and H3 in the execution traces
(Section 4.1), and provide experimental results in support
of H2 (Section 4.2).
4.1. Execution traces
We provide two execution traces to illustrate the operation
of our architecture in specific scenarios. Videos corre-
sponding to these traces can be viewed online [29]2 . In
all the scenarios, the human user (in the physical world)
uses hand gestures to create different situations and also
to mimic the gestures to be made by the customers or
Figure 7: Example layout of the RW domain used in
the supervisor in the restaurant environment. The layout
Execution Examples 1- 2. used to generate these traces is shown in Figure 7; it is
simplified version of Figure 3.
Execution Example 1. [Plan, execute, explain]
an unexplained, unexpected observation, and the robot Consider a scenario in which there is one customer 𝑐𝑢1
triggers interactive exploration (lines 9-12). Interactive seated at 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒1 in the restaurant, and the robot waiter is
exploration is also triggered if no active goal exists to be in the region of node 𝑛4 . In this scenario, the restaurant
achieved (lines 13-15). Depending on the human input, is organized into regions corresponding to eight nodes:
the architecture either acquires the previously unknown 𝑛0 − 𝑛7 . The subsequent steps in this scenario are:
gestures and axioms, or attempts to provide the desired
description of a target decision or belief (lines 19-21). • Three new customers (𝑐𝑢2 − 𝑐𝑢4 ) are introduced
When in the learning mode, the robot can be interrupted in the restaurant as a group by the human designer
if needed (lines 17-18), e.g., to pursue a new goal. showing a suitable hand gesture. This information
is also added to the ASP program automatically.
2
https://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~sridharm/KR22/
122
� • The hand gesture also lets the robot waiter (𝑟𝑜𝑏1 )
know that the new customers are to be seated at
a table. The robot comes up with a plan based
on the updated ASP program and the vacant table
that is closest to it:
𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑛5 ), 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑛0 ),
𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑢𝑝(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝1 ), 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑛5 ),
𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑛6 ), 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑡(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝1 , 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 )
• Note that applying the 𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑢𝑝 action to any cus-
tomer in a group causes the same effect on all
customers in the group. This plan is executed and
the state is updated accordingly, e.g., 𝑐𝑢2 − 𝑐𝑢4
are seated at 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 after the plan is executed.
• The robot can be asked about the executed plan.
Human: “why did you seat all the customers at
𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 ?”
Pepper: “Because all the customers wanted to
sit together and 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 was the closest available
table.”
• After some time, 𝑐𝑢1 has finished eating and
would like to leave. The designer imitates the
hand gesture that the customer would do in the
restaurant to ask for the bill. This is translated into
a goal in the ASP program: ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑑(𝑐𝑢1 ).
• The robot computes and executes a suitable plan to
give the bill to 𝑐𝑢1 , collect payment, and provide
a receipt, after which 𝑐𝑢1 leaves the restaurant.
Figure 8 shows snapshots from the beginning, middle, and
end of this scenario. Figure 8: Snapshots from the beginning, middle, and
end of scenario in Execution Example 1: (top) there is
initially one customer 𝑐𝑢1 seated at 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒1 ; (middle) the
Execution Example 2. [Learn, plan, explain] three new customers are at 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 and 𝑐𝑢1 gets the robot
Consider another scenario in which the restaurant initially waiter’s attention to request the bill; and (bottom) 𝑐𝑢1 has
has no customers. Robot waiter 𝑟𝑜𝑏1 is in the region of left the restaurant after paying the bill.
node 𝑛1 and knows that 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒1 and 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 have capacity
two and four respectively. Once again, the restaurant
• Since 𝑟𝑜𝑏1 knows that serving a customer implies
is organized into regions corresponding to eight nodes:
giving them the food item they want, it is able to
𝑛0 − 𝑛7 . The subsequent steps in this scenario are:
parse this complex instruction into the component
• The human (in the physical world) makes a hand actions. When the human then makes the same
gesture that is unknown to the robot waiter. The hand gesture again and introduces three new cus-
robot responds by identifying this as a new gesture tomers (𝑐𝑢2 − 𝑐𝑢4 ) near the restaurant’s entrance,
and conveys that this will be added to the database 𝑟𝑜𝑏1 computes a suitable plan (some steps omitted
of hand gestures. to promote understanding).
• Robot adds the new hand gesture and solicits feed- 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑛2 ), . . . , 𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑢𝑝(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑐𝑢2 ), . . . ,
back about the gesture. The human (designer)
𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑡(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑐𝑢2 , 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 ), . . . ,
intentionally provides a complex instruction (tex-
tually) that this gesture corresponds to “serve steak 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑘, 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 ), . . . ,
to a group of three new customers, and then give 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙(𝑟𝑜𝑏1 , 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 ), . . . ,
them the bill”.
• Plan is executed and the state is updated accord-
ingly at different time steps, e.g., 𝑐𝑢2 − 𝑐𝑢4 are
123
� achieve the assigned goals, identify and learn previously
unknown knowledge, and provide on-demand explana-
tions of decision and beliefs.
4.2. Experimental results
To further explore the effect of reasoning guiding learn-
ing, we conducted some quantitative studies. The first
experiment examined the benefits of reasoning guiding
the learning of deep network models for hand gestures.
Deep learning methods typically need many labeled train-
ing examples and epochs to learn models for the target
classification task. However, since learning in our archi-
tecture is constrained (by reasoning) to specific gestures
or classes of gestures at a time, it took fewer samples and
fewer epochs to acquire the desired models that provide
high accuracy—see Figure 10.
The second experiment examined whether reasoning
helped improve the recognition accuracy. In this experi-
ment, we considered 30 hand gestures. One round of test-
ing included 40 iterations of each hand gesture by a person
who did not participate in training. We conducted mul-
tiple rounds of testing and ground truth information was
provided by the designers (i.e., student authors). In the ab-
sence of the coupling between reasoning and learning, the
learned models had (on average) an accuracy of 85% over
the different hand gestures. However, with learning being
directed to specific (classes of) gestures, the learned mod-
els resulted in better classification accuracy—≈ 100%.
The third experiment examined the ability to provide
explanatory descriptions in response to different types of
queries in different situations. A description was consid-
Figure 9: Snapshots from the beginning, middle, and end ered to be correct if it had all the correct literals but no
of scenario in Execution Example 2: (top) there is initially additional literals. Overall, the interplay between reason-
no customer in the restaurant; (middle) the newly learned ing (with relevant knowledge) and learning (of previously
hand gesture is made to get the robot to serve steak to a unknown knowledge) led to the correct relational descrip-
group of customers; and (end) the robot provides a bill to tions in 95% cases, with the “errors” being descriptions
the customers after they have completed their meal. containing additional literals that were not essential to
answer the query posed but were not necessarily wrong.
In the absence of the learned knowledge, the accuracy
seated at 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 after the 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑡 action is executed. (averaged over query types) was 65 − 80%.
• The robot can be asked about specific plan steps.
Human: “why did you not serve pasta to 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 ?”
Pepper: “Because all customers at 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒2 wanted 5. Discussion and Conclusions
to eat steak.”
We conclude by highlighting the key capabilities of our
This explanation is based on the previously- architecture:
described approach to trace beliefs and the ap-
• Once the designer has provided the domain-
plication of relevant axioms.
specific information (e.g., arrangement of rooms,
Figure 9 shows snapshots from the beginning, middle, and range of robot’s sensors), planning, diagnostics,
end of this scenario. and plan execution can be automated. The cou-
pling between reasoning and learning enables
We evaluated the architecture in many other scenarios more complex theories (of cognition, action) to
grounded in the motivating (restaurant) domain; the robot be encoded without increasing the computational
was able to successfully compute and execute plans to effort substantially.
124
� 1.005
1.000
0.995
Accuracy
0.990
0.985
0.980
0.975
0.970
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Epoch
testing ANN-3x16 (1691) ANN-2x128 (25499)
training ANN-3x64 (12827)
Figure 10: Deep network models provide high (recognition) accuracy for hand gestures within a few epochs when
guided by reasoning.
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